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Michelle
Hu1, Chiachung Chen*2
1. Linne International Trade Co., PTY Ltd.
2. The
Africa Industrial Research Center,
National Chung Hsing University
*. Corresponding author:
Chiachung Chen, Ph.D., Professor
145 Xingda Rd., Taichung, Taiwan 40227
Tel:
886-4-22857562, Fax: 886-4-22857135
Web
site: bse.nchu.edu.tw
Email:
ccchen@dragon.nchu.edu.tw
The
Features, Controversies, and illustration for Castors in the Kingdom of
Eswatini
Abstract
Castor beans are an economic crop in major countries of the world. India
is the leading country, followed by China. The major producing countries
in Africa are Ethiopia, South Africa, and Angola. The castor beans
plants are planted for the oil produced from seeds. The seeds contain
ricin and ricinine which are concerned about poisonous to humans and
animals.
Regarding castor, some controversies are concerned. They are:1. Has
castor been planted, has it caused poisoning or other effects on the
soil? 2. Are the stems and leaves of castor beans poisonous to
livestock? 3. What is the effect of castor feed on livestock? 4. Is
castor poisonous to humans? 5. If carbon trading is considered, what is
the capacity of one hectare of castor to fix CO2?
In this study mini-review, these controversies are discussed and the
illustrations are provided with surveying and literature. The results of
this study indicated that the castor plants do not cause poisoning and
have positive effects on the soil. The stems and leaves of castor beans
are not poisonous to livestock unless they eat a lot of leaves. The
effect of castor feed on livestock is positive and the processing of
detox work needs to be strict. The castor beans are not poisonous to
humans unless
ingesting broken castor beans or chewing on the seeds.
? The capacity of one hectare of castor to fix CO2 is
34.6 tonnes so it provides this revenue pathway in the form of carbon
tax credits
I.
Introduction
According
to Wikipedia (Wikipedia. 2022), the Ricinus communis is called
the castor beans or castor oil plant a species of perennial flowering
plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. Castor seed has a wide
variety of uses, especially as a rich source of castor oil. Seeds
contain between 40% and 60% oil that is rich in triglycerides, mainly
with ricinolein. The seed also contains a soluble toxin,
called ricin. Ricin exits in lower concentrations in the plant. Castor
oil is used as an effective motor lubricant.
Kunene and
Masarirambi (2018) mentioned that castor is a traditional use of
medicinal plants. Castor beans are an economic crop in the world. India
is the leading country. The production in major countries are listed as
following:
India (1,196,680 tons), Mozambique (85,089 tons), China (36,000 tons),
Brazil (16,349 tons), Ethiopia (11,157 tons), Vietnam (7,000 tons),
South Africa (6,721 tons), and Paraguay (6,000 tons) (Sun, 2022).
China is the largest consumer of castor oil.
In 2021, China will import nearly 330,000 tons of castor oil, with a
total consumption of about 340,000 tons. With the rising price of
petrochemical products and the advent of the world's green wave, castor
oil is widely used in blowing agents, resins, and adhesives. In 2021,
consumption for these uses exceeds 120,000 tons, while castor oil for
sebacic acid is about 190,000 tons.
The Linne
Company is an important company for the production of castor beans in
Swatini. At the invitation of His Majesty King Mswati III through the
Taiwanese Ambassador to Swatini, Linne International Trading Co., Ltd.
accepted the invitation. Linne Company believes that castor oil
production will create jobs, reduce hunger and earn foreign currency for
the kingdom of Eswatini, earning benefits carbon rights for the country.
Since 2013, Linne has planted 4 hectares of castor oil in Matata as a
seeding center 2013-2018. 2014-2016 in Gebeni, 40 hectares. 2016-2019 in
Luve, 35 hectares. 20 hectares in Croydon in 2016-2017. At the Nisela
farm, 50 hectares in 2016-2019. Demonstration on 2 hectares of land in
ESWADE, 2018-2019.
China is the largest consumer of castor oil.
In 2021, China will import nearly 330,000 tons of castor oil, with a
total consumption of about 340,000 tons. With the rising price of
petrochemical products and the advent of the world's green wave, castor
oil is widely used in blowing agents, resins, and adhesives. In 2021,
consumption for these uses exceeds 120,000 tons, while castor oil for
sebacic acid is about 190,000 tons.
Europe’s consumption will increase by about
5.7% from 2020 to 2021. China saw substantial growth of 34.8% in 2020
and 3.6% in 2021. The U.S. saw a massive 23.1% increase in 2020 and an
11.2% increase in 2021. The world as a whole will grow by 4.8% in 2020
and 2021, respectively (Baldh, 2022).
The reason for the consumption increase is
explained by Lamy (2022). The major goal of the chemical industry is to
find a way to replace oil-based, high-performance plastics with
bio-based and sustainable ones. Castor oil is recognized as a renewable
raw material and is suitable to replace these oil-based polymers without
compromising material performance.
Shaheed (2022)
believes that consumer demand for castor oil is expected to remain at
normal levels in 2022. Some fluctuations in demand and higher prices
have the potential to hinder new demand and limit new growth. However,
with new applications, the growth potential, and castor and soybean oil
prices are correlated. Sustainability in the castor industry is more
important.
Castor has been
cultivated for centuries, mainly to produce seeds for oil extraction.
Castor oil has been used as lamp oil in Ethiopia for more than 6,000
years. Egyptians have been burning castor oil in their lamps for about
4,000 years. Ethiopia is now recognized as a place of origin due to
having the highest genetic diversity of the crop
The species was first
recorded in the United States in the 1760s in Florida, and by 1819 it
was classified as a naturalized plant in Hawaii. In the West Indies, R.
Communis was first recorded in Martinique in 1822 and the U.S. Virgin
Islands in 1883. It was introduced to Curaçao and Bermuda from the
American continent.
Castor beans contain
35% to 55% oil. Notably, this oil contains ricin and ricin. Ricin and
ricinolein contained in seeds are toxic to humans and animals. Eating
too many seeds can lead to death, like raw cassava tubers. But these
toxic compounds in castor beans are not present in castor oil.
Castor oil is used as
biodiesel, which is blended with diesel as a renewable feedstock.
According to the "Kyoto Protocol," the regulation can reduce the
production of greenhouse gases.
The Kyoto Protocol
is an international agreement aimed at reducing carbon dioxide and other
gas emissions. The ratifying countries of the Kyoto Protocol each
allocate their highest carbon emission levels and participate in carbon
credit trading. Under the agreement, industrialized countries will
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by an average of 5.2 percent in
2012. Different countries are riding their own implementation goals. The
EU member states, for example, aim to reduce emissions by 8% by 2012.
The United States' 2012 emission reduction target is 7%, while Canada's
target is 6%.
Due to the Kyoto
Protocol, oil-rich crops such as castor oil, the same as sugarcane that
produces bioethanol, have emerged as candidates for biofuel crop
production.
Biofuels are
a good green alternative to fossil fuels and currently come from edible
vegetable oils such as castor, soybean, palm, and sunflower. But using
food-producing land to produce biofuels puts pressure on food supplies.
This becomes an indirect land-use change (ILUC). Castor can be grown on
contaminated soils to improve soil properties and maintain ecosystems,
reduce soil erosion, and reduce the spread of potentially toxic elements
(PTEs) into the environment. Castor is grown on marginal land unsuitable
for food crops, and the harvested product has a variety of uses and is
already available for biodiesel production. These properties make it
suitable for sustainable biodiesel production. The link between biofuel
production and environmental remediation is considered a win-win
strategy (Carrino et al., 2020).
Biofuels are becoming a major policy and a
major industry to help countries around the world reduce their
dependence on oil, reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the
transportation sector, and improve the profitability of the agricultural
sector. (Berman et al., 2011; Drown et al., 2001) consider the use of
castor oil to produce biodiesel as technically feasible. The chemical
industry has a high demand for very high-value products. Biodiesel
produced from castor oil has significant advantages in lubricating
properties. The reason is that castor oil has a high energy value and
positive fuel properties
Dias et al. (2013) evaluated the suitability
of the castor plant in northern Portugal and assessed that the extracted
feedstock oil was used for biodiesel production without any refining.
Its eyes start from the sowing of castor beans, and the seeds are
harvested manually 24 months after the plant is planted. An experimental
program was conducted to evaluate the effect of temperature and reaction
time on product yield and quality, and mechanical and chemical oil
extraction procedures were evaluated. An oil yield of 54.1% (w/w) was
obtained by performing Soxhlet extraction with methanol for 20 trials.
Product yield increased from 43.3% to 74.1%. To obtain higher product
yields and quality using crude oil, it is recommended to use longer
reaction times compared to refined oils that have been commonly
reported. The optimal temperature and reaction time for biodiesel
production from crude castor oil was 65 degrees Celsius and 8 hours, and
the best model predicted a product yield of 73.62% and a purity of
83.41%.
Severino et al. (2012) argue that castor oil
properties are unique among vegetable oils as it is the only commercial
source of hydroxylated fatty acid (ricinoleic acid). This unique
hydroxylated fatty acid makes up approximately 90% of castor oil. No
other commercial vegetable oil produces such high levels of single fatty
acids, and aside from this advantage, the production environment has
little effect on ricinoleic acid concentrations. The fatty acid
composition of castor oil grown at different locations or at different
times for this industry is expected to vary little (Ramos et al., 1984;
Ogunniyi, 2006; Xu et al., 2008; Mutlu and Meier, 2010).
The estimated energy required to produce
biodiesel from castor oil is 56.8 GJ/ha. Castor beans production
consumes 19% of the total energy, with the majority of energy
consumption in castor oil extraction and refining (39%) and biodiesel
production (42%). If the energy consumed by by-products (field residues,
husks, meals, etc.) is not taken into account, a negative energy balance
occurs in biodiesel production (Chechetto et al., 2010). In other words,
its production process is characterized by carbon sinking.
Castor is a
hardy crop that survives easily in a wide range of ecosystems. This crop
can grow in temperate, subtropical, and tropical regions. The suitable
growth temperature of the castor is 20-25℃. The lowest temperature is
14-15°C and the highest temperature is 36°C. The optimum temperature for
germination is 31°C. This plant is drought tolerant and requires about
300-450 mm of rainfall during vegetative growth.
The water content of the soil is key to
flowering and fruit sets, and drought can affect seed yield and oil
content. The best soil is a sandy loam that is well-drained, deep,
well-ventilated, and moderately fertile. Poorly drained heavy clay and
swampy soils are not suitable for castor cultivation.
Kumar (2022) proposed an evaluation study of
castor farms through the SEA model. Its recommendations are to use
uniform guidelines to improve water efficiency and be able to combat
climate change. Focus on integrated operations such as soil health
testing, crop insurance, institutionalized credit, etc.
The SOP of castor production is very useful to ensure the quality and
quantity of the harvesting materials. The list of the SOP of castor
production is shown as the following (Severino et al., 2012; Nweke,
2019).
1. Availability of seeds with high-quality genetic purity, high
viability, and seedling vigor.
2. Proper seedbed preparation for fast and uniform emergence
3. Proper planting procedure and the application of plant nutrients
4. Proper site selection
5. Right planting time
6. Proper seedbed preparation
7. Recommended plant population and planting pattern,
8. Adequate fertilization and irrigation
9. Weeding
10. Topping to encourage branching of the plants
11. Pruning to the required number of branches per plant to increase
seed yield
12. Diseases and insect pest management, when they occur
13. Timely harvesting
14. Threshing, sorting, and bagging.
15. Seed processing
16. Farm sanitation is common with regular farming practices
The Appearance
features of castor are introduced (Weiss, 1971; Oplinger et al., 1999;
Anjani, 2012; Salihu, 2014; Edje and Ossom, 2016),
The leaves are large,
usually dark green, but also dark reddish-brown, turning bluish-blue in
old age, depending on the cultivar and stage of development. Leaf color
varies from light green to dark red, depending on the level of
anthocyanin pigmentation present. About 15 to 45 cm long, petioles long.
The leaves are palmate or stellate, with toothed margins, divided into
7-9 lobes. There are prominent veins below. The leaves are alternate,
shiny, glabrous, and strongly scented, below the stems 10-30 cm long.
There are two opposite leaves at the node just above the cotyledons.
Some pigments mask the green color of all chlorophyll-containing parts.
Prolonged sunlight does not seem to affect the growth and expansion of
castor leaves as long as there is enough water for evapotranspiration.
Insufficient water, however, can affect leaf growth and expansion.
Decreased leaf growth and expansion in dry seasons and a sharp drop in
leaves will result in a low surface area for photosynthetic activity,
thus contributing to the decline in yields in such seasons. Leaf
diseases caused by bacteria and fungi can also affect yield.
Castor stems are round, hollow, glabrous,
dull, pale green, sometimes reddish, and gray in old age. The color can
be seen graduating due to the growing season or environment. When aged,
the color of the stem usually turns gray at the base. Young stems are
capable of photosynthesis due to the presence of mesoplasts. In the
natural environment, stems are multi-branched, with primary branches
giving rise to secondary branches, an order that persists throughout the
life of the plant. The stems of the large types of castor are usually
solid and of considerable height. There are developed nodes, each of
which produces a leaf. The first node to appear in a raceme is an
important agronomic characteristic, as it is associated with rapid
ripening. To reduce apical dominance, tops are usually removed at 30-60
cm to reduce the height and increase branching. Pruning can reduce the
height or number of primary branches to 5 to 6. Used to reduce plant
height and increase yield, so that photosynthetic synthesis is
concentrated in a few selected viable branches.
The castor plant has a strong taproot and
thick fibrous lateral roots. Castor plants can generally be divided into
tall and dwarf genotypes. Tall plants have a large, well-developed
taproot that can reach several feet in length and have numerous lateral
and secondary roots. Roots of the dwarf type always reflect the
peculiarities of the cultivar or the cultivation system and have no less
obvious taproots. Root growth tends to be slower in arid regions where
only rainfall sustains their livelihoods. A well-developed root system
enables the plant to maximize the use of soil moisture, which is the
main reason for the plant's resistance to drought. Root systems are
strongly correlated with yield, as a good root system allows crops to
absorb the necessary nutrients and water for proper biomass
accumulation. Castor beans planted in soft soil facilitate the normal
development of the root system, which in turn contributes to higher
yields
The fruit is an ovate or round spiny capsule,
2.5 cm long, covered with soft spines, red-green, a three-celled
capsule, mostly 3 petals, each containing 1 seed. The fruit becomes hard
and brittle when ripe. Ricinus communis fruit is usually segmented,
typically ectoderm. Some castor varieties produce capsules with basic
spines. Some varieties are prickly capsules that are soft, elastic, and
non-irritating, while others produce prickly irritating capsules.
Racemes can be cylindrical or oval, with different arrangements of
capsules. The capsule arrangement can be compact, semi-compact, or
loose. Capsules may vary in color from light green to burgundy. The
period from seedling emergence to capsule maturity varies by genotype.
From 120 to 150 days. The higher the temperature, the shorter the
ripening days, and vice versa. The lowest-flowering racemes mature
first, and the others proceed to the stem. The ripening of the fruit on
the raceme is uneven, and in wild varieties, the time between the first
and last ripe fruit can be several weeks. Some varieties have capsules
that shatter as they ripen, while others do not. In some cases, the
entire capsule is dropped from the dried raceme and the seed remains
closed.
II.
Effects of the castor cultivation on the soil
Castor beans can generally be divided into
tall and short genotypes. Tall genotypes have large, well-developed
taproots and numerous lateral and secondary roots. Castor root is its
key characteristic; needs to be strong; 40-50 cm deep. Castor's
well-developed root system enables the plant to maximize soil moisture
utilization, which is a major factor in plant drought resistance. The
strong correlation between the root system to yield is that it allows
crops to absorb enough nutrients and water to properly accumulate
biomass. Loose soil favors root development, which in turn helps
increase yields. Because castor oil allows compacted soil management,
there are potential yield benefits for subsequent crops in the same area
(Kaiima, 2013).
Castor can
grow and yield in marginal & poor soils better than most crops but, to
achieve high & profitable yields, high content of sand and organic
matter is beneficial to castor.
Many
experiences have shown that castor is an excellent crop before cereals
and maize, contributing to an increase in yield. Some research shows
that castor acts as a nematocide (Meloidogyne spp.), therefore it can be
very beneficial as a rotation crop in fields that are known to be
infested with nematodes, before sowing crops that are sensitive to
nematodes. Other works have shown that the content of N:P: K in the
vegetative residues that are incorporated into the soil after the crop
is very high. In addition, for purposes of weed control, it is
recommended to use a crop rotation with crops of different types that
need herbicides different from castor herbicides to eliminate castor
volunteer plants in the following season. Another reason for crop
rotation is to prevent a build-up of pests populations and diseases due
to the continuous growth of the same crop (Severino et al., 2006;
Soratto et al., 2011; Baldwin and Cossar, 2009; Santos et al., 2001;
Silva et al., 2010; Lakshmi et al., 2010; Zucchini et al., 2010a, b).
Castor has a long
history as an ornamental plant (Murin, 1993; Zoltan et al., 2006;
Coscione et al., 2009; Krenzelok, 2009) due to its large leaves, fast
growth, drought tolerance, and diverse stem and fruit colors Sex, this
plant is a landscape plant.
Castor beans grow
and yield better than most crops in poor soils. However, for high yields
and high yields, land with high sand and organic matter content is
beneficial to the Castor (Murin, 1993; Coopman et al., 2009; Krenzelok,
2009).
Castor is an excellent crop before cereals
and maize, helping to increase yields. Castor can be used as a
nematicide (Meloidogyne spp.). It is therefore very beneficial as a
rotation crop in fields known to be infested with nematodes. The plant
residues that enter the soil after the crop is harvested have very high
levels of N:P: K. Without weed control, it is recommended to rotate
crops with different types of crops that require herbicides other than
castor herbicides to eliminate castor volunteers the following season.
Another reason for crop rotation is to prevent the accumulation of pest
populations and diseases due to the continuous growth of the same crop.
(Severino et al., 2006; Soratto et al., 2011; Baldwin and Cossar, 2009;
Santos et al., 2001; Silva et al., 2010; Lakshmi et al., 2010; Severino
et al., 2010).,
Castor can be the
plant of choice for remediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils
because it is tolerant to many types of heavy metals and is not produced
as food. Castor is a hyperaccumulator of lead (Romeiro et al., 2006; Liu
et al., 2008), highly enriched for Ni (Sherene, 2009), and moderately
tolerant to cadmium (Shi and Cai, 2009 year). Castor also grows well in
soils high in zinc (Shi and Cai, 2010). High doses of Ba and As do not
inhibit the growth of castor, but these elements do not accumulate in
the vegetative tissue of castor (Coscione and Berton, 2009; Melo et al.,
2009).
Castor meal as
organic fertilizer. As an organic fertilizer, castor meal has the
advantages of high nitrogen content, fast mineralization, and nematode
resistance. Mineralized castor meal was evaluated to be 7 times faster
than cow dung and 15 times faster than bagasse. Castor meal promotes the
growth of wheat and castor plants. (Lima et al., 2011). Castor bark can
also be used as an organic fertilizer but must be mixed with N-rich
organic material to provide a better nutrient balance for plant growth
(Lima et al., 2011).
III. Is castor an invasive plant in Eswatini?
In the information of
the National Museum of Natural History (National Museum of Natural
History, 2022), Castor beans are introduced as follows: “Ricinus
communis (Castor beans) is a species of shrub in the family
Euphorbiaceae. They have a self-supporting growth form. They are
associated with freshwater habitats. They are native to Nigeria,
Afghanistan, Botswana, Angola, Hungary, Algeria, Benin, Morocco, Syria,
Iran, Israel, Egypt, Lesotho,
Jordan, Kenya, Swaziland,
Ethiopia, Pakistan, South Africa, and Turkey. They have simple, broad
leaves. Flowers are visited by hummingbirds and Halictus lucidipennis.
Individuals can grow to 3.4 m.”
In their record, the
castor beans are a native plant in Eswatini (Swaziland) and Lesotho.
This plant is not an invasive plant for Eswatini.
In the
research paper studied by Professor Lwenje, Department of Chemistry,
Swaziland Univ., Kwaluseni, Eswatini (1996), titled ” Some properties of
castor oil produced from castor plants growing in Swaziland.”, the
professor used the native castor to study the oil properties. In other
words, the castor have been cultivated and harvested before 1996. That
is, castor plants are not invasive plants in Eswatini.
Between 1999
to 2004, Loffler, L., and Loffler, P. performed a “The Swaziland Tree
Atlas project”. This project included field visits, data collection, and
data processing. In their report, Castor Oil was found widespread
throughout most of the Eswatini area and common to abundant. The general
use is that leaves are used to treat open wounds and the fruit is used
for the oil (Loffler, L. and Loffler, P. 2005).
According to the
definition of an invasive plant (Ligenfelter, 2009; Lambertini et al.,
2011; Maema et al., 2016), the characteristics of an invasive plant are
listed as follows: Abundant seed production, rapid establishment, high
dispersal ability, seed dormancy, long-term survival of buried seeds,
adaptation to spread, presence of vegetative reproductive structure, and
ability to occupy sites disturbed by human activities. Castor did not
correspond with these criteria, so this plant shall not be recognized as
an invasive plant
Invasive species are
defined as "plant species that are distributed, intentionally or
unintentionally, outside their native area, without the environment in
which they evolved, with the potential to cause damage to the
environment and without natural enemies that might prevent their spread.
According to this definition, castor oil plants do not qualify as
invasive species. For example, the maize, sorghum, rice, beans, cowpea,
groundnut, and sugarcane (native to New Guinea) introduced into Eswatini
can be recognized as invasive plant species. Maize originated in Mexico.
Even the delicacy of Eswatini, ligusha (Corchorus olitorius L),
originated in China. However, these crops are not classified as invasive
species. Castor beans contain ricin, which is poisonous and Cassava
contains hydrocyanic acid, which is more deadly than castor beans.
However, is Cassava a staple food for millions of people in Africa,
Latin America, and Asia?
IV. Are the stems and leaves of castor beans poisonous to livestock?
Poisoning
due to ingestion of castor leaves or seeds is rare, according to a
survey of potentially poisonous plants in Brazil's semi-arid regions.
The assessment was conducted through interviews with farmers covering an
area of 12,500 square kilometers and 451,000 animals (cattle, sheep,
goats, and horses). Wild castor plant is common. There are few reports
of ricin poisoning, and it occurs only in cattle. In one case, 15 cattle
from a herd of 180 were poisoned after grazing in an area with castor
plants and showed symptoms of ricin ingestion. All the poisoned cattle
recovered and did not die. In another case, 2 cattle in a herd of 30
died from symptoms of ricin poisoning, and large amounts of Ricinus
communis were found in the rumen of both animals (Silva et al., 2006;
Assis et al., 2009). Six farmers reported that they were successfully
feeding their cattle with castor leaves by gradually increasing their
consumption (Silva et al., 2006).
According to
Professor Guosheng Hu (personal communication, Mar. 30, 2022),
herbivores such as cattle and sheep generally do not eat castor leaves,
because castor leaves have a special taste and texture, which herbivores
do not like.
In the case of extreme hunger and no other
food source, animals eat a small amount, which can lubricate the
intestines and help animals digest. So herbivores such as cattle and
sheep will not be poisoned and die after being eaten by mistake.
The castor plant can
be used to produce honey. There are nectaries in the petioles of castor
beans, which are often eaten by bees. When bees swarmed the castor
fields, the hive normally produced 18.8 kg of honey over 49 days, 80% of
which was made from castor nectar (Milfont et al., 2009). Castor pollen
has also been found in Indian honey (Paliwal et al., 2009).
Krochmal (2018)
reported that castor (Ricinus Communis) is a good bee plant. Bees can
easily find and eat the fine castor flower easily, which produces large
quantities of yellow pollen. Pollen makes up more than 10% of a bee's
diet and provides honey when enough plants are available. Extrafloral
nectaries are located at the base of leaves and partly on petioles and
stems. Bees also collect nectar from young seed pods. So castor is some
source of honeydew.
According to
Linne International Trade Co (personal communication, Feb. 22, 2022),
Castor beans were planted in several areas of Eswatini, cattle and sheep
were eaten leaves and stem without dying, and workers in the factory
were safe, and no sick
From this
information, the castor plant is the source to produce honey. The effect
of the castor leaves on the livestock depends on the number of leaves
that they took. A successful record is found for
feeding
cattle with castor leaves by gradually increasing their consumption.
V. What is the effect of castor feed on livestock?
The degree of the poisoning depends upon the
amount ingested and the age and general health of the individual. There
are numerous documented cases of ricin poisoning and death when horses,
livestock, and poultry accidentally ate castor seeds or meals (Worbs et
al., 2011; Akande et al., 2016).
The presence of toxic components in castor
seeds, including ricin and the alkaloid ricinoleic, has been a concern
in handling castor seeds, meal, or oil mills. The most notorious
ingredient is ricin seeds, it is a deadly poison found in abundance in
seeds. However, less abundant in the rest of the plant (Salihu et al.,
2012).
Poisoning
occurs when animals took broken seeds or chew seeds. Whole seeds can
pass through the digestive tract without releasing ricin. Commercially
available cold-pressed castor oil is not toxic to the human body either
internally or externally at normal doses (Salihu et al., 2012).
Growers of
castor as an ornamental both indoors and outdoors may remove it from the
plant as it emerges in flower clusters, so no seeds are produced, thus
minimizing the risk of accidental poisoning (Zoltan et al., 2006).
Ani and Okorie (2009)
reported that the castor meal and husk are used for animal feed:
Detoxified castor meal can be used as feed. The detoxification of castor
meal is
performed by boiling and then adding up to 100g/kg in broiler finishing
feeds without deleterious effects. Pompeu (2009) introduced the
castor meal
detoxified by autoclaving with higher air pressure and temperature can
replace up to 67% of the soybean meal in sheep.
As the hay was completely replaced with
castor husks, castor husks containing a large number of seed fragments
(60 g/kg) were evaluated for feeding dairy goats. The content in milk
decreased (27%), but the lipid concentration increased (28%). Castor
husks have not undergone any detoxification process and no signs of
toxicity have been observed (Santos et al., 2001).
Castor seeds
have various advantages such as wide distribution, eco-friendliness,
high oil yield, medicinal properties, and nutrient density. In addition
to being used as bioenergy and industrial feedstock, it also has great
future potential as farm animal feed. But castor meal detoxification is
still an allergenic factor, which, while not causing problems in animal
feed, may cause allergic reactions in humans during processing. It is
therefore recommended to use a protective kit when handling castor
beans. The literature shows that elevated pH, high temperature, and the
activity of certain microorganisms greatly aid in the detoxification of
castor oil. The use of free amino acids as a preventive measure in
allergen-exposed individuals is under investigation.
The use of breeding technology to develop
low-toxicity castor varieties will promote the application of castor
meals in animal rations. Additional precautions for processors include
vaccination and active surveillance, and prevention of misuse in humans.
A more concerted effort is needed to prepare safe and acceptable castor
meals for the feed industry.
A study by Montao et
al. (2018) describes the epidemiological, clinical, and pathological
aspects observed in an outbreak of accidental poisoning of castor cake
in horses. The diagnosis of castor cake poisoning in horses is based on
clinically and pathologically supported indirect evidence of by-product
consumption. The results showed that castor cake, which is marketed as a
fertilizer, is highly toxic when ingested by horses, and therefore
requires proper detoxification or labeling to indicate its toxicity.
Ukachukwu et
al. (2011) executed the experiment to determine the acute toxicity of
raw castor oil bean (Ricinus communis) extract and the tolerance level
of raw castor oil bean on broilers. The extract volume equivalents of
six doses (0 -24 g/kg) and then given by oral drenching to thirty
6-week-old broilers (live weight of 500-600 g). Their result indicated
that the tolerance level of broiler birds for raw Ricinus communis is
about 4000 parts per million or 4 g of seed per kg body weight.
Aslania et
al. (2007) described the findings of intoxicated sheep with castor beans
in the clinical, laboratory, and pathological methods.
Oso et al.
(2011) observed the effect of fermented castor oil seed (FCSM) meal in
the diets of 160-day-old chicks of the Nera strain. The criteria are
performance, nutrient digestibilities, hematology, and carcass yield,
which were assessed for 56 days’ feeds. FCSM could successfully be
included in chick starter diets at 50 g/kg inclusion.
To study the
risks associated with Castor beans (Ricinus communis L.) meal in animal
feeding systems, many research efforts have been devoted to developing
more sensitive methods for the detection of ricin in castor powder,
food, and biological samples. Methods of survival based on exposure of
animals to different doses have been the first criterion for the
detection of ricin (Godal et al., 1984; He et al., 2010a). However, live
animal testing cannot be performed in most laboratories because it is
expensive, time-consuming, requires special animal care facilities, and
cannot handle large numbers of samples. The accuracy of live animal
experiments has also been questioned because its LD50 values are
affected by factors such as animal species, injection route, observation
time, age, sex, and rearing conditions (Godal et al., 1984; Zhan and
Zhou, 2003; He et al., 2010a).
Case reports
from Europe, the Americas, and Asia describe livestock poisoning after
ingestion of organic fertilizers containing castor cake. This problem
comes from a problem with the detoxification process itself, which can
leave residual active ricin in the pressed cake. Therefore there is a
need to standardize the interpretation process and implement it.
From the above discussion, inconsistent
reports are found. However, the doses of Castor beans (Ricinus communis
L.) are the key for feed or poison.
VI. Is castor poisonous to humans?
Humans
and other animals have been poisoned by ingesting broken castor beans or
by chewing on the seeds (Gana et al., 2013). Whole seeds pass through
the digestive tract without releasing toxins. This toxin provides a
degree of natural protection to the castor oil plant from pests. .
Castor oil is a source of undecylenic acid, a natural fungicide. The
potential use of ricin as a pesticide is under investigation.
(Anonymous, 2019; Wikipedia, 2022)
Castor contains ricin,
one of the known toxic substances. Medical findings may cause acute and
potentially fatal gastroenteritis. Its prolonged toxicity is
dose-related and depends on the number of castor beans ingested. The
toxicity of the seeds depends on the dose and how they are eaten.
Swallowing is not as deadly as chewing and can be fatal to humans after
swallowing 5 to 30 seeds, and if swallowed without chewing, humans have
a survival rate of up to 98%. There is no specific treatment, and
supportive management needs to be started early to reduce the toxin load
to avoid serious complications. (Al-Tamimi and Hegazi, 2008; Harkup,
2018).
The case of
two girls with castor beans poisoning was reported (El koraichi, 2012).
Audi et al. (2005) commended that most cases of Ricin poisoning are
intentional acts. Eating natural castor beans is a mistake.
In the Ricin
Information Sheet, the Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene
Office (2019) introduced that the trashing castor beans are the easiest
crude way to make ricin. Heavy exposure to castor beans is not dangerous
and unlikely to cause serious illness or death. Concentrated Castor
beans, this product requires certain processing methods. Highly refined
Ricin This product requires the most complex and destructive preparation
methods. Highly refined products are extremely rare because they require
a lot of manpower and technology to make. The production of highly
refined and concentrated castor beans products requires a large number
of castor bean raw materials, so it is impossible to go unnoticed.
Most cases of ricin poisoning in humans have
occurred in the consumption of raw seeds. But animal cases have also
occurred after ingestion of processed castor seed products. After the
castor seeds are pressed for oil, the compressed cake of the seeds is
full of egg whites. After detoxification, it can be used as organic
fertilizer, soil conditioner, or as an inexpensive additive in animal
feed (Worbs et al., 2011).
To avoid these mistakes, Kaiima company proposes these measures of
caution technique to keep the safety of workers,
1. Keep castor seeds out of reach of children & domestic or farm
animals.
2. Use gloves when dealing with castor seeds.
3. Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water after dealing with castor
seeds.
4. Keep farm animals out of the castor fields and processing areas.
5. Inform people, who may come in contact with castor seeds, of the
hazards involved.
The company
emphasizes that the seed coat of the castor seed contains the toxin
ricin, which can be harmful if swallowed. Therefore these measures
should be applied strictly:
Liked as cassava root
and some edible plants, the ricin in castor beans seed is poisonous.
However, People living in West Africa, Latin America, and some Asian
countries know how to treatment t cassava root for food to avoid eating
its poisonous
The wild castor beans
which grow under stress could produce more secondary metabolites, hence
more poisonous and more deadly. However, the commercial crops are not
the original varieties. These crops are not cultivated for food.
Cases of accidental chewing of castor seeds
caused poisoning have been reported occasionally, but compared with the
annual cases of people accidentally ingesting drug pills or taking too
many drug pills, the problem of castor seeds is insignificant. People
don't prohibit taking drug pills because of this.
VII. The carbon foot of castor
If carbon trading is
considered, what is the capacity of one hectare of castor to fix CO2?
In the
comment of Eco-Business (2022) on carbon capture, the special and
unintended but so important advantage to a castor beans planting is that
these plants can absorb a lot of carbon dioxide, thereby they reduce
exactly the greenhouse gas accumulations in the atmosphere. The
estimated carbon dioxide absorption level of castor beans plants is 34.6
tons/ha. So it offers this avenue for revenue in the form of carbon tax
credits.
Of all the
oily plants currently grown for the production of industrial vegetable
oils, castor should be a good candidate for future investment (Pari et
al., 2020). Because of its good high yield, insect resistance, drought
tolerance, and suitability for marginal land cultivation. The production
of castor oil from castor oil produces large quantities of press cakes,
husks, and crop residues that can be processed as by-products for
different purposes. Within the framework of the bioeconomy, there is a
great contribution. In this study method, castor oil produced from two
different castor hybrids was evaluated for environmental impact results
and economic viability, and four by-product management options and two
harvesting systems, manual versus mechanical, were compared. The
hand-harvested castor hybrids involve only the press cake obtained by
extraction and the results are the most sustainable. Using the ratio of
gross profit to GWP emissions to calculate economic performance per unit
of environmental burden (gross profit) The findings show that in the
case of hybrids there is a better relationship between economic
performance and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions into the atmosphere rate
(��3.75 per kg
CO2 equivalent) In fact, in a low-inputs system the
emission was 878 kg
CO2 eq.; under high-inputs management, it reached
1210 kg
CO2 eq. (Pari et al., 2020).
A comparative study of the effects of high
input or low input on the growth of castor was carried out. This study
aimed to assess these effects under Mediterranean climate and
agricultural conditions by examining two alternative scenarios. Castor
oil, found on the fringes of the Mediterranean region, is a candidate
crop for biomass energy (Falasca et al, 2012). Can be grown with minimal
resources to provide unique industrial chemicals or as an energy crop.
Planting with intensive inputs allows for higher yields. Whether two
options, high or low input, are more sustainable depends on the economic
and environmental impact of each situation. This study, therefore,
assesses these effects under Mediterranean climate and agricultural
conditions by examining two alternative scenarios. Estimate
environmental impact by following a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach
based on greenhouse gas emissions (Pari et al., 2021). And a sensitivity
analysis was performed by switching functional units from 1 mg castor
oil to 1 ha (Giray and Catal, 2021). The economic viability of castor
crop production is assessed by calculating the gross profit margin,
which is the difference between revenue and variable costs at the
agricultural stage. The economic performance (gross margin) per unit of
environmental burden is calculated using the ratio of gross margin to
GWP (Global Warming Potential) emissions. The findings suggest that
castor oil produced with high input yields higher yields than castor oil
produced with low input, thus leading to a more sustainable scenario.
Sensitivity analysis showed that low-input on-site management showed 27%
lower GHG emissions than high-input on-site management.
From an
economic standpoint, gross margin increased by approximately 73% by
shifting field management from low to high inputs. The high-input
scenario shows the optimal ratio between economic performance and
greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere.
The ratio between the economic performance of
the input scenarios and the emissions of greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere is used as an evaluation indicator. The high input scenario
is EUR 1.14 per kg
CO2 eq, while the low input scenario is EUR 0.14 per
kg
CO2 eq. The results of these assessments are affected by yield
differences. Similar results were obtained by performing a sensitivity
analysis by converting functional units from 1 mg oil to 1 hectare. The
high input scenario has a better economic performance to the ratio of GHG emissions to the atmosphere (��0.30 per kg
CO2e) (Pari et al., 2022).
The results
of the study in Ecuador (Penabad et al., 20196) show the benefits of
castor oil's use as a biofuel, as a renewable energy source in Ecuador,
and the economic viability of its production. Key considerations for
each step of the castor business plan, with added emphasis on
environmental and financial processes. The required considerations
include 19 intermediate-level impact categories and 4 final
environmental-level impact categories. It was found that oil production
for biofuels has a very small weighted impact on the environment: 9.74%,
thus proving that the castor oil plant is an environmentally friendly
biomass energy substance.
The 19
activities of the life cycle of the production of castor oil plant oil
considered are (Rodríguez-Goyoset al., 2009, 2014; Pérez, 2013; Penabad
et al., 2019):
Preliminary step:
1- Determine the land (location,
characteristics, rainfall)
2- Buy and purchase implements and machines
–for agricultural work
3- Buy and acquire seeds, tools, and
equipment, oil extraction labor
Agricultural step:
4- Preparation and attention of the soil,
agronomic techniques, and phytosanitary
5- Planting: sowing, watering, germinating
6- Fertilizing (nutrients - substrate)
7- Applying chemical pesticides and
pesticides
8- Cultural work: pruning and weeding
9- Picking the fruit
10- Transporting the fruit
Industrial process step:
11- Peeling the fruit
12- Obtaining the co-products, cake,
glycerol, etc.
13- Pressing the seeds - extracting the oil
14- Refining the oil
15- Storing and packaging the oil and
co-products
16- Distribution and use of oil and
co-products
17- Uninstalling the ecosystem
Recycling step:
18- Waste treatment generated by the
uninstallation
19- Reuse, recycle or recover debris from the
uninstallation
In the report of the
SEA Castor Sustainability Effort Project 2021-22, Vyas et al. (2022)
mention the impact on the Indian castor industry through government
investment in training: Establishment of castor demonstration farms to
promote the adoption of good agronomic practices, training and talent
development, capacity enhancement and behavior change communication,
promote sustainable and environmentally friendly operations, reduce
chemical use, improve water efficiency and water conservation, etc. Its
demonstration model farmers have expanded from 68 (2017) to 408 (2021).
Farmers who adopt the project's best practices can increase their
productivity and the country's overall castor seed production.
Integrated castor farm sustainability, better social, environmental, and
economic performance.
Sun (2022)
described that bio-based materials are derived from natural biomass
energy and illustrated so many advantages such as carbon emission
reduction and renewable. Almost all industrial materials made from
petrochemical resources can be replaced by biobased materials. As
sustainable development has gradually become the consensus and the focus
of all countries, bio-based materials, such as castor oil will usher in
vigorous development, its future is coming.
Lamy (2022)
emphasized
that replacing oil-based high-performance plastics with sustainable
biological feedstocks is one of the main goals of the chemical industry.
Castor oil is a renewable biological raw material. It is a suitable
replacement for oil-based polymers without compromising material
properties.
To assist in the
management of the crop so no castor beans are planted to avoid any
cross-pollination, the guide of assist in the management of the crop (Rômulo,
2012; Linne Co. 2021) has been established.
A. Basic facilities
1. Establish a 3-5 m wide strip as a buffer zone without any castor
plants to avoid any cross-pollination.
2. There are security guards at the gate at the entrance of the farm,
who have the right to deny access to the ministry
3. Registration of persons entering and leaving the farm
4. Educate staff about the castor crop, especially regarding it is not
an edible legume.
B. Establish Standard Operating Procedures
1. Proper seedbed preparation will be maintained for rapid and even
emergence.
2. High-quality seeds about vigour, purity, and vigour will be used
3. Correct planting procedures and application of plants
4. Weed control to prevent plant competition and prevent weeds from
breeding pests and diseases
5. Fertilize correctly
6. Pruning to get the desired number of branches
7. Timely irrigation to improve overall growth and increase oil content
8. Pest management
9. Harvest in time to avoid seed breakage and lead to seed dispersal
10. Ensure no seeds are lost during transportation from farm to the
factory for processing
11. Proper threshing, sorting, and bagging
C. Implement farm and factory hygiene
12. Keep out of reach of children and livestock.
D. Regularly inspect the factory site
13. The plants did not cause any harm to humans or animals or the
environment.
VIII. Conclusion
Castor is an
economic crop in major countries in the world. India is the leading
country, followed by China. The main producers in Africa are Ethiopia,
South Africa, and Angola. The castor plant is grown to extract the oil
from the seeds. Regarding castor, there is some controversy. They are 1.
Was castor planted, and was there any poisoning or other effects on the
soil? 2. Are the stems and leaves of castor beans poisonous to
livestock? 3. What effect does castor beans feed have on livestock? 4.
Is castor poisonous to humans? 5. If carbon trading is considered, what
is the capacity of one hectare of castor to fix carbon dioxide?
In this
small review study, these controversies are discussed and surveys and
literature are presented.
Castor beans
grow and yield better than most crops in poor and infertile soils, but
to achieve high and profitable yields, fertilization and irrigation are
important. It is therefore very beneficial as a rotation crop in fields
known to be infested with nematodes. Plant residues that enter the soil
after crops are harvested have very high levels of N:P: K. Castor can be
the plant of choice for remediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils.
Considering the criteria for an invasive plant, castor oil does not meet
these criteria, so the plant should not be considered an invasive plant.
Poisoning
from consuming castor leaves or seeds is rare. Castor is the source of
honey production. The effects of castor leaves on livestock depend on
the number of leaves they eat. By gradually increasing the consumption
of castor leaves, cattle have been successfully raised.
Poisoning
occurs when animals eat broken seeds or chew seeds. Whole seeds can pass
through the digestive tract without releasing ricin. Commercially
available cold-pressed castor oil is non-toxic to humans for oral or
external use at normal doses
These inconsistent reports of animal
poisoning were found. However, the dose of castor (Ricinus communis L.)
is critical for feed or toxicity. Humans and other animals are poisoned
by eating broken castor beans or chewing the seeds. The whole seed
passes through the digestive tract without releasing toxins. To avoid
these mistakes, some careful techniques to keep workers safe need to be
implemented.
Castor can absorb large amounts of carbon
dioxide, thereby reducing the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. The carbon dioxide uptake level of the castor plant was
estimated to be 34.6 t/ha. As such, it provides this revenue pathway in
the form of carbon tax credits. With proper training, farmers can
increase their productivity and the country's overall castor seed
production. Integrated castor farm sustainability, better social,
environmental, and economic performance.
The guide of assist
in the management of the crop is proposed to assist in the management of
the crop so no castor beans are planted to avoid any cross-pollination.
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